Dr. SASAKI, Takako

Assistant Professor, Waseda University, Japan

佐佐木孝子博士

日本早稻田大學助理教授

社區賦權在台灣又稱「社區營造」，意指居民同心協力解決社區問題，縱然過程中另有專家和地方行政官員參與，居民仍是其中主體。社區賦權成就多寡，取決於居民有無主導和參與的意識，即使是住在避難所亦然，避難民眾和志工等援助人員之間，絕非給予援助和接受援助的單向關係；避難民眾能與援助人員合作，透過表達需求改善生活困境，災民才是避難生活裡的主人翁。

Community empowerment, represented by Taiwanese Shequ-Yingzao (社區營造), is a process in which residents collaborate and solve the community’s problems. Although several entities, including experts and local administrative officials, cooperate in this process, the main body is the residents. The achievements of a community empowerment practice rely on the residents' awareness of ownership and participation—living in an evacuation center is, too. The relationship between evacuees and supporters, such as volunteers, is not one way like help-giver and help-receiver. Evacuees can advocate for their needs to make their tough living easier, cooperating with outside supporters. Disaster victims are the main actors in the evacuation lives.

本文聚焦於避難所裡的社區建構實踐，尤其是近年更受重視的性別觀點和課題，文中將回顧日本部分成果和待解問題，並簡要描述減災機構發展的歷史。

This article focuses on community-building practices in evacuation centers, especially from a gender perspective, a recent critical issue. It reports some achievements and remaining challenges in Japan and provides a brief history of the development of disaster risk reduction institutions.

性別議題意識：阪神大地震

Awareness of gender issues- the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (阪神・淡路大震災)

1995年發生的阪神大地震中，首現規模7以上的地震紀錄，對身家財產的損害前所未見，也促使各界開始思考，災害對日本現代社會的各種衝擊，其中包括長期避難環境欠佳的情況，也間接傷害到無數災民。避難所天災發生後，需緊急提供庇護，確保安全和飲食供應無虞，而隨著避難期間拉長，避難所更要做為災民長期重建生活的基地 (Yamori, 1997; Matsukawa et al., 2022)。

The Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995 was the first to record a seismic intensity of 7. It caused unprecedented damage to both humans and property. This tragedy prompted a consideration of the various impacts of disasters on modern Japanese society. One issue that came to light was the problem of long-term evacuation situations in substandard environments, which indirectly harmed the disaster victims. As evacuation periods became longer, evacuation centers were required to be bases to support the long-running reconstruction of evacuees’ lives in addition to being emergency shelters to ensure safety and food just after a natural disaster (Yamori, 1997; Matsukawa et al., 2022).

圖1：1995年阪神淡路大地震時，在小學體育館設立的避難所

An evacuation center set up in an elementary school gymnasium during the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995

(神戸市：阪神・淡路大震災「1.17の記録」https://kobe117shinsai.jp/area/nagata/f198.php)

避難所內可分為三個群體：災民、設施管理人員、志工，行政機關和社福單位協助各項流程，也會涉入避難所管理，社區居民避難時可能四散各地，地方行政官員也可能蒙受損害，無法返回工作崗位，因此在災區內的難民之間，未必能具備過往社區的凝聚力。在緊急情況下，內部和外部團體究竟該如何協助災民長期生活？各種關於避難所生活的討論也由此而生，包括倖存者如何協調、建立領導機制等(e.g., Kashihara et al., 1998)，從這些災區行動可見，人們意識到建立新社區的需求迫切，避難所管理如今也加入了社區發展元素。

Approximately three distinct groups of individuals congregated in these evacuation centers: disaster victims, facility management staff, and volunteers. Moreover, administrative agencies and social welfare councils supporting comprehensive various procedures were also involved in managing evacuation centers. Residents of one community did not necessarily evacuate together; local administrative officials suffered damages and had no way to return to work. In many cases, previous communities did not work to create cohesive victims in disaster sites. How can these inside and outside gatherings unite to support prolonged residents’ lives in an emergency environment? Discussions on living in evacuation centers, such as organizing survivors and deploying leadership, began (e.g., Kashihara et al., 1998). These movements at disaster sites indicated that the urgent need to build a new community was recognized. Managing evacuation centers now incorporates the idea of community development.

阪神大地震後，避難所居住空間和隱私設計獲得重視，這股趨勢也初次突顯出災害管理的性別觀點 (Nishioka, 2016)，性別角色與責任等社會狀態影響了男女互動關係，也形成失衡的權力結構。女性較男性在災害中更易受衝擊，而災害也導致性別議題加劇；女性若所得較低或年齡較高，更可能面臨房屋毀損或死亡。女性常得照顧子女或年邁雙親，也承擔著家人失望之情，更常要協助供應家庭基本需求 (Nishioka, ibid.)，然而過去卻未考量女性健康、生育、衛生等因素，她們更可能面臨性暴力威脅，儘管此事相當嚴重，女性災民過往卻無機會開口討論 (Nishi, 2023)。在各種條件下，女性經驗和意見無法反映在重建計畫中，也無緣參與重建、管理或長期減災政策制定過程 (Nishioka, ibid.)。

After the Hanshin-Awaji tragedy, the design of shelter living spaces and privacy became a focus. This trend also highlighted the crucial role of gender perspective in disaster management for the first time (Nishioka, 2016). Social norms, such as gender roles and responsibilities, determine interrelationships between men and women in society and have formed an imbalanced power structure. It has been clarified that women are more susceptible to harmful impacts than men in disaster situations, and gender issues progressed during such events; women with low income or older age were more likely to experience house damage and even fatalities. Women had to take care of their children and aging parents, cure their family members’ disappointed feelings, and play a role in supplying the basic needs of their families (Nishioka, ibid.). There was no consideration for women’s health, pregnancy and childbirth, and sanitation. To make matters worse, there was the danger of sexual victimization. Although this was a serious threat, female evacuees were not allowed to discuss it (Nishi, 2023). Under such surroundings, their experiences and opinions were not reflected in reconstruction projects. Women had no access to formulating reconstruction and management or long-term disaster risk reduction policies (Nishioka, ibid.).

災害管理法規體系納入性別觀點

Incorporating a gender perspective into the disaster management legal system

時隔十年，聯合國於2005年元月召開第二屆世界減災會議，日本政府於同年七月修訂災害管理基本方案，明言在避難所管理等減災活動中，需提高女性參與；同年十二月，政府將減災納入《性別平等社會基本法》中，列為需著手處理的議題，在中央政府層級承認在災害管理之中，具需備性別敏感度。

Ten years later, in 2005, the UN held the 2nd World Conference on Disaster Reduction in January, followed by the Japanese government revising the Disaster Management Basic Plan (防災基本計畫) in July, specifying that promoting women’s participation in disaster risk reduction activities, including evacuation center management. In December, the government incorporated disaster risk reduction into the Basic Act for Gender Equal Society (the second, 男女共同參畫社會基本法（第二次）) as an issue to be addressed. The need for gender-sensitive disaster management was finally recognized at the national administration level.

政府於2013年修訂《災害管理基本法》，引進防災社區方案制度，強調無論在災害重建或災害發生前，居民都是社區減災作業中的主角；在災區支援體系中，地方政府亦可派遣人員管理情況，而外來機關和非營利組織則合作確保各項協助工作順暢。另一方面，第三屆世界減災會議通過的「仙台減災綱領」，將女性（及年輕人）領導力列為未來15年減災政策關鍵事項。

The government revised the Basic Act on Disaster Management (災害對策基本法) in 2013 and introduced the System of Community Plan for Disaster Prevention (地區防災計畫制度). It specified that residents were the main actors in promoting community-based disaster risk reduction both during reconstruction after a disaster and during regular times[i]. The system supporting the disaster site was also enacted. Other local governments were able to dispatch staff to manage the conditions. Outsiders, such as administrative and NPO staff, cooperatively operated support activities smoothly[ii]. On the other hand, the Sendai Framework (仙台框架) adopted in the 3rd World Conference on Disaster Reduction (2015, 第3屆聯合國防災世界會議) positioned women's (and youth's) leadership as a critical concept of disaster risk reduction policies for the next 15 years[iii].

在2011年東日本大地震後，這些行動將減災作為置入社區賦權脈絡中，也成為在社區災害管理中提倡女性賦權的基礎。

These movements, which emerged after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (東日本大震災), put disaster risk reduction practices into the context of community empowerment and laid a basis for promoting women’s empowerment in community-based disaster management.

圖2：2011年東日本大地震期間提供支援物資

Providing support supplies during the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011

(時事通信社：東日本大震災１００枚の記録写真特集https://www.jiji.com/jc/d4?p=lat216-jlp10590026&d=d4_quake)

女性開始在災區行動：2024能登半島震災

Women beginning to act on a disaster site - the 2024 Noto Peninsula Earthquake (令和6年能登半島地震)

社會狀態造成的性別鴻溝在日本相當顯著，諸多報告和案例研究指出，東日本大地震期間，性別角色在避難所管理之中依然固著 (Nishioka, ibid.)；時至2024年1月1日，能登半島發生強震，地形地貌變化劇烈，造成道路、供水等基礎建設嚴重受損，重建生活環境因此比過往更費時，導致約4,600位居民截至2024年5月，仍然不得不住在避難所中。據當地報紙所述，許多避難所管理人員為男性，無暇顧及女性需求 (Ishida, 2023)，一位女性醫師每日前往避難所，發放各項安全通知，並提到女性災民蒙受龐大壓力(Nishi, ibid)，無奈在身心困頓環境之中，要處理災民生活的性別議題實屬不易。

The gender gap based on social norms has remained strong in Japan. Many reports and case studies revealed that perceptions of gender roles in managing evacuation centers were still emphasized during the Great East Japan Earthquake (Nishioka, ibid.). Now then, on January 1, 2024, an earthquake hit the Noto Peninsula (能登半島). Massive terrain changes accompanied by the severe earthquake caused extensive damage to basic infrastructure, including roads and water facilities. Restoring the living environment is taking longer than it has in previous events, and as a result, around 4,600 residents have been compelled to still live in evacuation centers (as of May 2024). According to newspaper articles, many evacuation center managers were men and could not afford to be concerned about women's needs (Ishida, 2023). A female doctor visits evacuation centers every day and distributes security alarms. She claims how much stress female evacuees have had there (Nishi, ibid). Unfortunately, settling gender problems in the evacuees' lives in harsh mental and physical environments is a tough nut to crack.

不過有些媒體亦報導，能登災區出現了新現象，女性護士開始參與男性領頭的每日會議，也有女性管理避難所的案例；一名管理人員調整了避難所配置，以便女性災民和行政管理部門溝通，維護自身安全和生活，安全通知亦依據災民意見，張貼於廁所內 (Nishi, ibid)。

Nevertheless, some media reported new movements in the Noto disaster site; female nurses participated in discussions among male leaders in daily meetings. There was a case in which women managed an evacuation center. A management staff improved the layout of an evacuation center so that women victims could secure their safety and live easily by negotiating with the administrative side. Security alarms were put in the toilets according to the evacuees’ opinions (Nishi, ibid).

如上所述，災區內的社區賦權作為有所進展，災區女性終於開始行動、展現積極態度，在打破社會性別期望的漫漫長路上，邁開了步伐。

Community empowerment practices in disaster sites have progressed as described above. Women in the disaster site have finally begun to act, taking the initiative and breaking the vulnerability the gendered society has expected, although it will be a long way.